Vinegar

The name of the pictureThe name of the pictureThe name of the pictureClash Royale CLAN TAG#URR8PPP






A variety of flavored vinegars on sale in France


Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace chemicals that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains 5–20% by volume acetic acid. Usually the acetic acid is produced by the fermentation of ethanol or sugars by acetic acid bacteria.[1] Vinegar is now mainly used as a cooking ingredient, or in pickling. There are many types of vinegar, depending upon the source materials.


As the most easily manufactured mild acid, it has historically had a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses. Some of these are commonly practiced in the 21st century, such as its use as a household cleaner.




Contents





  • 1 Production


  • 2 Chemistry

    • 2.1 Polyphenols



  • 3 Etymology


  • 4 History


  • 5 Varieties

    • 5.1 Fruit


    • 5.2 Palm


    • 5.3 Balsamic


    • 5.4 Cane


    • 5.5 Grains


    • 5.6 Spirits


    • 5.7 Kombucha



  • 6 Uses

    • 6.1 Nutrition


    • 6.2 Culinary

      • 6.2.1 Beverages


      • 6.2.2 Diet and metabolism



    • 6.3 Folk medicine


    • 6.4 Pests


    • 6.5 Household



  • 7 Miscellaneous


  • 8 See also


  • 9 References


  • 10 External links




Production




Fast aerobic fermentation stainless steel vessels


Main article: Acetic acid § Production

Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation process. In general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars, where fermentation proceeds over the course of a few months to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria.


Fast methods add mother of vinegar (bacterial culture) to the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in one to three days.



Chemistry


The conversion of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and oxygen (O2) to acetic acid (CH3COOH) takes place by the following reaction:[2]


CH3CH2OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O


Polyphenols


Vinegar contains numerous flavonoids, phenolic acids, and aldehydes,[3] which vary in content depending on the source material used to make the vinegar, such as orange peel or various fruit juice concentrates.[4][5]



Etymology


The word vinegar arrived in Middle English from Old French vyn egre, which in turn derives from Latin vinum (wine) + acer (sour).[6]



History


Vinegar was used as a condiment and for conservation by the Babylonians as much as 5,000 years ago.[7] Traces of it also have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 BC.[8]



Varieties


Source materials for making vinegar are varied, including different fruits, grains, alcoholic beverages or other fermentable materials.



Fruit





Persimmon vinegar produced in South Korea




Raisin vinegar


Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines, usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, blackcurrant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a market for high-price vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars that are infused with fruits or fruit flavors).[9] Several varieties are produced in Asia. Persimmon vinegar, called gam sikcho, is common in South Korea. Jujube vinegar, called zaocu or hongzaocu, and wolfberry vinegar are produced in China.


Apple cider vinegar is made from cider or apple must, and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present. It can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened (usually with honey) for consumption.


A byproduct of commercial kiwifruit growing is a large amount of waste in the form of misshapen or otherwise-rejected fruit (which may constitute up to 30 percent of the crop) and kiwifruit pomace. One of the uses for pomace is the production of kiwifruit vinegar, produced commercially in New Zealand since at least the early 1990s, and in China in 2008.[10][11]


Pomegranate vinegar is used widely in Israel as a dressing for salad, but also in meat stew and in dips.[12] Vinegar made from raisins is used in cuisines of the Middle East. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor. Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East, and used in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries.[13][14]



Palm


Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut water or sap, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (notably the Philippines, where it is known as sukang tuba), as well as in some cuisines of India and Sri Lanka, especially Goan cuisine. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.[15]


In the Philippines, there are other types of vinegar also made from palm sap. Like coconut vinegar, they are by-products of tubâ (palm wine) production. The two of the most widely produced are nipa palm vinegar (sukang nipa or sukang sasa) and kaong palm vinegar (sukang kaong or sukang irok). Along with coconut and cane vinegar, they are the four main traditional vinegar types in the Philippines and are an important part of Filipino cuisine.[16] Nipa palm vinegar is made from the sap of the leaf stalks of nipa palm. It has a citrusy flavor note to it and imparts a distinctly musky aroma.[17][15]Kaong palm vinegar is made from the sap of flower stalks of the kaong palm. It is sweeter than all the other Philippine vinegar types and are commonly used in salad dressing.[16] Vinegar from the buri palm sap is also produced, but not the same prevalence as coconut, nipa, and kaong vinegars. [18] Kaong palm vinegar is also produced in Indonesia and Malaysia, though it's not as prevalent as in the Philippines because the palm wine industry is not as widespread in these Muslim-majority countries.[19][20]



Balsamic


Main articles: Traditional Balsamic Vinegar and Balsamic vinegar

Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic aged vinegar produced in the Modena and Reggio Emilia provinces of Italy. The original product — traditional balsamic vinegar — is made from the concentrated juice, or must, of white Trebbiano grapes. It is dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in successive casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and ash wood. Originally a costly product available to only the Italian upper classes, traditional balsamic vinegar is marked "tradizionale" or "DOC" to denote its Protected Designation of Origin status, and is aged for 12 to 25 years. A cheaper non-DOC commercial form described as "aceto balsamico di Modena" (balsamic vinegar of Modena)[21] became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century, typically made with concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, then coloured and slightly sweetened with caramel and sugar.


Balsamic vinegar is made from a grape product. It contains no balsam fruit. A high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it mellow. In terms of its nutrition content, balsamic vinegar contains the carbohydrates of grape sugars (some 17% of total composition), making it some 5 times higher in caloric content than typical distilled or wine vinegar.[22]



Cane


Vinegar made from sugarcane juice is most popular in the Philippines, in particular in the northern Ilocos Region (where it is called sukang Iloko or sukang basi), although it also is produced in France and the United States. It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Because it contains no residual sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines it often is labeled as sukang maasim (Tagalog for "sour vinegar").


Cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars; it becomes sour by the direct action of bacteria on the sugar. The other way is through fermentation to produce a local wine known as basi. Low-quality basi is then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid. Contaminated basi also becomes vinegar.


A white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost.[citation needed]


Sugarcane sirka is made from sugarcane juice in Punjab, India. During summer people put cane juice in earthenware pots with iron nails. The fermentation takes place due to the action of wild yeast. The cane juice is converted to vinegar having a blackish color. The sirka is used to preserve pickles and for flavoring curries.



Grains




Chinese black vinegar


Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, sorghum, or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor. There is no fixed recipe, so some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Zhenjiang vinegar, originates in the city of Zhenjiang in Jiangsu Province, eastern China.[23] Shanxi mature vinegar is another popular type of Chinese vinegar that is made exclusively from sorghum and other grains. Nowadays in Shanxi province, there are still some traditional vinegar workshops producing handmade vinegar which is aged for at least five years with a high acidity. Only the vinegar made in Taiyuan and some counties in Jinzhong and aged for at least three years is considered authentic Shanxi mature vinegar according to the latest national standard. A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu.


Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in "white" (light yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer a light rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally is colored with red yeast rice. Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, and it is also widely used in other East Asian countries. White rice vinegar has a mild acidity with a somewhat "flat" and uncomplex flavor. Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.


Malt vinegar made from ale, also called alegar[24], is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. Then an ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged.[24] It is typically light-brown in color. In the United Kingdom and Canada, malt vinegar (along with salt) is a traditional seasoning for fish and chips. Some fish and chip shops replace it with non-brewed condiment.


According to Canadian regulations, malt vinegar is defined as a vinegar that includes undistilled malt that has not yet undergone acetous fermentation. It must be dextro-rotary and cannot contain less than 1.8 grams of solids and 0.2 grams of ash per 100 millilitres at 20 degrees Celsius. It may contain additional cereals or caramel.[25]



Spirits





Sherry vinegar


The term spirit vinegar is sometimes reserved for the stronger variety (5% to 21% acetic acid) made from sugar cane or from chemically produced acetic acid.[26] To be called "Spirit Vinegar", the product must come from an agricultural source and must be made by "double fermentation". The first fermentation is sugar to alcohol and the second alcohol to acetic acid. Product made from chemically produced acetic acid cannot be called "vinegar" in the UK, where the term allowed is "Non-brewed condiment".


Sherry vinegar is linked to the production of sherry wines of Jerez. Dark mahogany in color, it is made exclusively from the acetic fermentation of wines. It is concentrated and has generous aromas, including a note of wood, ideal for vinaigrettes and flavoring various foods. Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar in Southern and Central Europe, Cyprus and Israel. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better-quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years, and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than white or cider vinegars. More expensive wine vinegars are made from individual varieties of wine, such as champagne, sherry, or pinot gris.


The term "distilled vinegar" as used in the United States (called "spirit vinegar" in the UK, "white vinegar" in Canada[27]) is something of a misnomer because it is not produced by distillation but by fermentation of distilled alcohol. The fermentate is diluted to produce a colorless solution of 5% to 8% acetic acid in water, with a pH of about 2.6. This is variously known as distilled spirit, "virgin" vinegar,[28] or white vinegar, and is used in cooking, baking, meat preservation, and pickling, as well as for medicinal, laboratory, and cleaning purposes.[26] The most common starting material in some regions, because of its low cost, is malt,[29] or in the United States, corn. It is sometimes derived from petroleum.[30] Distilled vinegar is used predominantly for cooking, although in Scotland it is used as an alternative to brown or light malt vinegar. White distilled vinegar can also be used for cleaning, and some is actually sold specifically for this purpose.



Kombucha


Kombucha vinegar is made from kombucha, a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of bacteria. Kombucha vinegar primarily is used to make a vinaigrette, and is flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.



Uses



Nutrition


Distilled or red wine vinegar is 95% water, with no carbohydrates, fat, or protein.[31] In a 100 ml (gram) reference amount, distilled vinegar supplies 18 calories and no micronutrients in significant content.[31] Composition and absence of nutrient content for red wine vinegar and apple cider vinegar are the same, whereas balsamic vinegar is 77% water, with 17% carbohydrates, 88 calories per 100 ml, and no fat, protein or micronutrients.[22]



Culinary


Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation, in particular pickling liquids, and vinaigrettes and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in sauces, such as hot sauce, mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used in chutneys. It is often used as a condiment on its own or as part of other condiments. Marinades often contain vinegar. In terms of its shelf life, vinegar's acidic nature allows it to last indefinitely without the use of refrigeration.[32]



Beverages


Several beverages are made using vinegar, for instance Posca in ancient Rome. The ancient Greek oxymel is a drink made from vinegar and honey, and sekanjabin is a traditional Persian drink similar to oxymel. Other preparations, known colloquially as "shrubs", range from simply mixing sugar water or honey water with small amounts of fruity vinegar, to making syrup by laying fruit or mint in vinegar for several days, then sieving off solid parts, and adding considerable amounts of sugar. Some prefer to boil the "shrub" as a final step. These recipes have lost much of their popularity with the rise of carbonated beverages, such as soft drinks.



Diet and metabolism


Small amounts of vinegar (2 to 4 tablespoons) may reduce post-meal levels of blood glucose and insulin in people with and without diabetes.[33][34][35]



Folk medicine


For millennia, folk medicine treatments have used vinegar, but there is no evidence from clinical research to support health claims of benefits for diabetes, weight loss, cancer or use as a probiotic.[33] Some treatments with vinegar pose risks to health.[36]Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar has been reported, and because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, such products may vary widely in content and acidity.[37]



Pests


Twenty percent acetic acid vinegar can be used as a herbicide,[38] but acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems so the vinegar will only kill the top growth and perennial plants may reshoot.[39]


Applying vinegar to common jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts, although not as effectively as hot water.[40] This does not apply to the Portuguese man o' war, which, although generally considered to be a jellyfish, is not; vinegar applied to Portuguese man o' war stings can cause their nematocysts to discharge venom, making the pain worse.[41]


Vinegar is not effective against lice.[42]



Household


White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent. For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers, and other smooth surfaces.[43] Vinegar is known as an effective cleaner of stainless steel and glass. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the United Kingdom.[44]


Vinegar can be used for polishing copper, brass, bronze or silver. It is an excellent solvent for cleaning epoxy resin as well as the gum on sticker-type price tags. It has been reported as an effective drain cleaner.[45]



Miscellaneous


Most commercial vinegar solutions available to consumers for household use do not exceed 5%. Solutions above 10% require careful handling, as they are corrosive and damaging to the skin.[46]


When a bottle of vinegar is opened, mother of vinegar may develop. It is considered harmless and can be removed by filtering.[47]


Vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), a form of nematode, may occur in some forms of vinegar unless the vinegar is kept covered. These feed on the mother of vinegar and can occur in naturally fermenting vinegar.[48]


Some countries prohibit the selling of vinegar over a certain percentage acidity. As an example, the government of Canada limits the acetic acid of vinegars to between 4.1% and 12.3%.[49]


According to legend, in France during the Black Plague, four thieves were able to rob houses of plague victims without being infected themselves. When finally caught, the judge offered to grant the men their freedom, on the condition that they revealed how they managed to stay healthy. They claimed that a medicine woman sold them a potion made of garlic soaked in soured red wine (vinegar). Variants of the recipe, called Four Thieves Vinegar, have been passed down for hundreds of years and are a staple of New Orleans hoodoo practices.[50][51]


A solution of vinegar can be used for water slide decal application as used on scale models and musical instruments, among other things. One part white distilled vinegar (5% acidity) diluted with two parts of distilled or filtered water creates a suitable solution for the application of water-slide decals to hard surfaces. The solution is very similar to the commercial products, often described as "decal softener", sold by hobby shops. The slight acidity of the solution softens the decal and enhances its flexibility, permitting the decal to cling to contours more efficiently.


When baking soda and vinegar are combined, the bicarbonate ion of the baking soda reacts to form carbonic acid, which decomposes into carbon dioxide and water.[52]



See also



  • Food additive

  • List of condiments

  • Vinegar tasters


References




  1. ^ Nakayama T (1959). "Studies on acetic acid-bacteria I. Biochemical studies on ethanol oxidation". J Biochem. 46 (9): 1217–25..mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"""""""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registrationcolor:#555.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration spanborder-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center.mw-parser-output code.cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;font-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorfont-size:100%.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-rightpadding-right:0.2em


  2. ^ Saladin, Kenneth S. (2015), Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, McGraw-Hill Education, p. 55, ISBN 978-9814646437


  3. ^ Cerezo, Ana B.; Tesfaye, Wendu; Torija, M. Jesús; Mateo, Estíbaliz; García-Parrilla, M. Carmen; Troncoso, Ana M. (2008). "The phenolic composition of red wine vinegar produced in barrels made from different woods". Food Chemistry. 109 (3): 606–615. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.01.013.


  4. ^ Cejudo-Bastante, C; Castro-Mejías, R; Natera-Marín, R; García-Barroso, C; Durán-Guerrero, E (2016). "Chemical and sensory characteristics of orange based vinegar". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 53 (8): 3147–3156. doi:10.1007/s13197-016-2288-7. PMC 5055879. PMID 27784909.


  5. ^ Coelho, E; Genisheva, Z; Oliveira, J. M; Teixeira, J. A; Domingues, L (2017). "Vinegar production from fruit concentrates: Effect on volatile composition and antioxidant activity". Journal of Food Science and Technology. 54 (12): 4112–4122. doi:10.1007/s13197-017-2783-5. PMC 5643795. PMID 29085154.


  6. ^ "Definition of vinegar in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries.


  7. ^ Holzapfel, Lisa Solieri, Paolo Giudici, editors ; preface by Wilhelm (2009). Vinegars of the world (Online-Ausg. ed.). Milan: Springer. pp. 22–23. Bibcode:2009viwo.book.....S. ISBN 9788847008663. Cleopatra dissolves pearls in vinegar [...] vinegar is quite often mentioned, is the Bible, both in the Old and in the New Testament.


  8. ^ Bourgeois, Jacques; Barja, François (December 2009). "The history of vinegar and of its acetification systems" (PDF). Archives des Sciences. 62 (2): 147–160.


  9. ^ "What is Fruit Vinegar?". vinegarbook.net. Retrieved June 10, 2010.


  10. ^ "Biotechnology in New Zealand" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  11. ^ "The Vinegar Institute". Versatilevinegar.org. 2008-10-20. Archived from the original on 2010-03-29. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  12. ^ "The poetic goodness of pomegranates".


  13. ^ Das, Bhagwan; Sarin, J. L. (1936). "Vinegar from Dates". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry. 28 (7): 814. doi:10.1021/ie50319a016.


  14. ^ Forbes, Robert James (1971). "Studies in Ancient Technology".


  15. ^ ab Edgie Polistico (2017). Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary. Anvil Publishing, Incorporated. ISBN 9786214200870.


  16. ^ ab Lim-Castillo, Pia (2006). "Traditional Philippine Vinegars and their Role in Shaping the Culinary Culture". In Hosking, Richard. Authenticity in the Kitchen. Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2005. Prospect Books. p. 296–298. ISBN 9781903018477.


  17. ^ Lumpia, Burnt (2009-05-17). "I'm Gonna Git You Suka (Filipino Vinegar)". Burntlumpiablog.com. Retrieved 2015-01-03.


  18. ^ Dagoon, Jesse D. (1989). Applied nutrition and food technology. Rex Book Store. p. 273. ISBN 9789712305054.


  19. ^ Siebert, Stephen F. (1999). "Where There is no Beer: Arenga pinnata and Sagueir in Sulawesi, Indones" (PDF). Palms. 43 (4): 177–181. Retrieved 23 December 2018.


  20. ^ "Toddy Palm - Sugar Palm". Clove Garden. Retrieved 23 December 2018.


  21. ^ "Balsamic vinegar". BBC Good Food.


  22. ^ ab "Nutrition facts for balsamic vinegar". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from the US Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database, standard reference 21. 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2019.


  23. ^ AsianWeek.com Archived February 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine


  24. ^ ab "Alegar". Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press. 2018. Retrieved 2 March 2018.


  25. ^ "Vinegar, Division 19". Justice Laws Website, Government of Canada. 27 December 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2018.


  26. ^ ab Sinclair C, International Dictionary of Food and Cooking, Peter Collin Publishing, 1998
    ISBN 0-948549-87-4[page needed]


  27. ^ "List of Ingredients and Allergens: Requirements; Exemptions, Prepackaged Products that Do Not Require a List of Ingredients; Standardized vinegars B.01.008(2)(g), FDR". Canadian Food Inspection Agency. 29 July 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2017.


  28. ^ Allgeier RJ et al., Newer Developments in Vinegar Manufacture, 1960 ("manufacture of white or spirit vinegar"), in Umbreit WW, Advances in Microbiology: Volume 2, Elsevier/Academic Press Inc.,
    ISBN 0-12-002602-3, accessed at Google Books 2009-04-22[page needed]


  29. ^ Bateman, Michael (2 May 2016). "Bliss and vinegar - why malt makes a pretty pickle: It's time for a revival of a very British condiment". The Independent, Independent Digital News & Media, London, UK. Retrieved 2 September 2016.


  30. ^ "CPG Sec. 555.100 Alcohol; Use of Synthetic Alcohol in Foods". Fda.gov. 2014-09-18. Retrieved 2015-01-03.


  31. ^ ab "Nutrition facts for distilled vinegar". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast; from the US Department of Agriculture National Nutrient Database, standard reference 21. 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2019.


  32. ^ "Shelf Life of Vinegar". Eatbydate.com.


  33. ^ ab "Vinegar". TH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University. 2018. Retrieved 26 May 2018.


  34. ^ Shishehbor, F; Mansoori, A; Shirani, F (2017). "Vinegar consumption can attenuate postprandial glucose and insulin responses; a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 127: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2017.01.021. PMID 28292654.


  35. ^ Liatis, S; Grammatikou, S; Poulia, K-A; Perrea, D; Makrilakis, K; Diakoumopoulou, E; Katsilambros, N (2010). "Vinegar reduces postprandial hyperglycaemia in patients with type II diabetes when added to a high, but not to a low, glycaemic index meal". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 64 (7): 727–32. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.89. PMID 20502468.


  36. ^ Johnston, Carol S.; Gaas, Cindy A. (2006). "Vinegar: medicinal uses and antiglycemic effect". MedGenMed. 8 (2): 61. PMC 1785201. PMID 16926800.


  37. ^ Hill, L; Woodruff, L; Foote, J; Barreto-Alcoba, M (2005). "Esophageal Injury by Apple Cider Vinegar Tablets and Subsequent Evaluation of Products". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 105 (7): 1141–4. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2005.04.003. PMID 15983536.


  38. ^ "Spray Weeds With Vinegar?". Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  39. ^ "Vinegar as herbicide". Cahe.nmsu.edu. 2004-04-10. Archived from the original on 2008-05-04. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  40. ^ Nomura, J; Sato, RL; Ahern, RM; Snow, JL; Kuwaye, TT; Yamamoto, LG (2002). "A randomized paired comparison trial of cutaneous treatments for acute jellyfish (Carybdea alata) stings". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 20 (7): 624–6. doi:10.1053/ajem.2002.35710. PMID 12442242.


  41. ^ "Portuguese Man 'o Wars and their sting treatment". Cinemaquatics.co.uk. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  42. ^ Takanolee, M; Edman, J; Mullens, B; Clark, J (2004). "Home Remedies to Control Head Lice Assessment of Home Remedies to Control the Human Head Louse, Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae)". Journal of Pediatric Nursing. 19 (6): 393–8. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2004.11.002. PMID 15637580.


  43. ^ "My Environment: Cleaning Products", Ontario Ministry of the Environment


  44. ^ "Trade Secrets: Betty's Tips", BBC/Lifestyle/Homes/Housekeeping. Retrieved 2009-04-22.


  45. ^ "95+ Household Uses for Vinegar | Reader's Digest". Rd.com. Retrieved 2015-01-03.


  46. ^ "Conquer Weeds with Vinegar?". Hort.purdue.edu. 2006-03-24. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  47. ^ "Vinegar Information". Reinhart Foods. 2004-01-01. Archived from the original on 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2013-06-23.


  48. ^ "FDA: Sec. 525.825 Vinegar, Definitions – Adulteration with Vinegar Eels (CPG 7109.22)". Food and Drug Administration. 2009-07-27. Retrieved 2010-03-15.


  49. ^ "Departmental Consolidation of the Food and Drugs Act and the Food and Drug Regulations – Part B – Division 19" (PDF). Health Canada. March 2003. Retrieved 2008-09-02.


  50. ^ Hunter, Robert (1894). The Encyclopaedic Dictionary. Toronto: T.J. Ford. ISBN 978-0-665-85186-5.
    [page needed]


  51. ^ Kacirk, Jeffery (2000). The Word Museum:The most remarkable English ever forgotten. Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-85761-9.
    [page needed]


  52. ^ http://engineering.oregonstate.edu/momentum/k12/march04/index.html



External links


Media related to Vinegar at Wikimedia Commons












-

Popular posts from this blog

用户:Ww71338ww/绘画

Image
Clash Royale CLAN TAG #URR8PPP 你好～！欢迎来到萌娘百科！ 如果您是第一次来到这里，点这里加入萌娘百科! 欢迎具有翻译能力的同学～有意者请点→Category:需要翻译的条目← 如果您在萌娘百科上发现某些内容 错误/空缺 ，请 勇于 修正/添加！ 编辑萌娘百科其实很容易！ 觉得萌娘百科有趣的话，请推荐给朋友哦～ 萌娘百科群119170500欢迎加入，加入时请写明【 萌娘百科+自己的ID 】～ 萌娘百科Discord群组已经建立，请点此加入！ 哇！金色传说！ 你发现了集成各路大神攻略的秘籍宝典！还是免费！看前须知： 大神班中的笔记 各路门派偷师所得 个人感悟、原创研究 为了 维护行业利益 ，本人只会对外公开高达八成的内容 人比人气死人 从来没有人觉得你有天赋，因为这是家人和周围人骗你的 从来没有人觉得你画得有多好，因为你自己隔段时间看就知道有多渣了 从来没有人觉得你是大佬，因为别人只是在奉承并套你的话 从来没有人喜欢别人画得比自己好 “ 外行人只关注你的成品 ” 达芬奇的草稿：维特鲁威人（恶搞） 基本资料 用语名称 Ww71338ww/绘画 其他表述 画画、素描、美术 相关条目 User:Ww71338ww/画师、抽象画、赛璐珞、Photoshop、SAI “这只是我的业余职业” - 【异界全职业大师】达芬奇对绘画的看法 “总有一天你们会看着我画的东西撸” - 一位灵魂画师的自白 “就算你是一流的设计师，就算你图画得再牛逼，我叫你改图你就得改图，毕竟我是甲方。抱歉，甲方是真的能为所欲为的” - 甲方 “我靠它赚钱. / 而且我最恨别人站我背后指点江山” - User:Ww71338ww/画师对绘画的评论 “标题党” - 爱好者对一些视频、培训、教程、伪教程的看法 绘画 （Drawing 或Painting）是在绘画媒介表面上加图形、颜色、构图及其他美学方法，达到表现出User:Ww71338ww/画师希望表达的概念意思、思想情绪和美的感觉。又名 画画 、 绘图 、 图画 、 作画 、 临摹 、 素描/速写 、 描图 、 绘制 、 速图 、 涂鸦 、 美术 。 画不好的原因：1%（笔刷、电脑配置、天赋、老师）+99% 不画 。但是科学研究表明，刻意练习和即时反馈才是王道，而且先天因素远远大于后天因素，往死里画并没有什么卵用。 目录 1
Read more

自由群

Image
Clash Royale CLAN TAG #URR8PPP 由兩個元素a, b 生成的自由群的凱萊圖 在數學中，一個群 Gdisplaystyle G 被稱作 自由群 ，如果存在 Gdisplaystyle G 的子集 Sdisplaystyle S 使得 Gdisplaystyle G 的任何元素都能唯一地表成由 Sdisplaystyle S 中元素及其逆元組成之乘積（在此不論平庸的表法，例如 st−1=su−1ut−1displaystyle st^-1=su^-1ut^-1 之類）；此時也稱 Gdisplaystyle G 為集合 Sdisplaystyle S 上的 自由群 ，其群結構決定於集合 Sdisplaystyle S ，記為 F(S)displaystyle F(S) ， Sdisplaystyle S 稱作一組 基底 。按照範疇論的觀點，自由群也可以抽象地理解為群範疇中的自由對象。 一個相關但略有不同的概念是 自由阿貝爾群 （ 英语 ： free abelian group ） 。 目录 1 歷史 2 例子 3 建構方式 4 泛性質 5 性質與定理 6 自由阿貝爾群 7 塔斯基的問題 8 文獻 歷史 在1882年，Walther Dyck 在發表於 Mathematische Annalen 的論文 Gruppentheoretische Studien 中研究了自由群的概念，但未加以命名。「自由群」一詞由 Jakob Nielsen 於1924年引入。 例子 2個圓環的集束 整數的加法群 (Z,+)displaystyle (mathbb Z ,+) 是自由群；事實上我們可取 S:=1displaystyle S:=1 。 在巴拿赫-塔斯基悖論的論證中用到兩個生成元的自由群，以下將予說明。 在代數拓撲學中， kdisplaystyle k 個圓環的集束（即： kdisplaystyle k 個只交於一點的圓環，見右圖）的基本群是 kdisplaystyle k 個生成元的自由群。 建構方式 今將構造集合 Sdisplaystyle S 上之自由群 F(S)displaystyle F(S) ，分解動作如下。 對任何 s∈Sdisplaystyle sin S ，引入符號 s−1display
Read more

卑爾根

Image
Clash Royale CLAN TAG #URR8PPP 卑尔根 Bergen 城市 Kommune av Bergen 旗幟 徽章 卑爾根在霍达兰郡的位置 卑尔根 卑爾根在挪威的位置 坐标： 60°22′N 05°24′E  /  60.367°N 5.400°E  / 60.367; 5.400 坐标： 60°22′N 05°24′E  /  60.367°N 5.400°E  / 60.367; 5.400 國家   挪威 郡 霍达兰郡 建立 1070年之前 政府  • 市長 Marita Moltu （KrF） 面积  • 城市 464.71 平方公里（179.43 平方英里）  • 陸地 445.19 平方公里（171.89 平方英里）  • 水域 19.52 平方公里（7.54 平方英里）  • 市區 94.03 平方公里（36.31 平方英里）  • 都會區 2.755 平方公里（1.064 平方英里） 人口 （2017年1月）  • 城市 278,556  • 密度 600/平方公里（1,600/平方英里） 居民称谓 Bergenser/Bergensar 时区 CET （UTC+1）  • 夏时制 CEST（UTC+2） 郵政號碼 5003–5268 (P.O.box 5802-5899) 電話區號 +47 5556 網站 www.bergen.kommune.no 卑爾根 （挪威语： Bergen   聆听 帮助 · 信息 ）是挪威第二大城市。根據政府的統計，直至2006年7月1日，卑爾根市區的人口有243 219人 [1] ，如果連同郊區和周邊區域的話，則有369 099人 [2] 。整個城市共分為八個區域： Arna 、 Bergenhus 、 Fana 、 Fyllingsdalen 、 Laksevåg 、 Ytrebygda 、 Årstad 和 Åsane 。 卑爾根位於挪威的西南方，剛好位於「七大山」（挪威语： de syv fjell ）的中間。卑爾根是西挪威的非正式首都，也是挪威對外的大門。而也因為其峽灣地形適合大型船集操作，令卑爾根成為歐洲最大的郵輪港中的一個。根據2005年的統計，卑爾根處理全挪威超過50%的貨物來往。 在2000年，卑爾根獲選為「歐洲文化之都」。 [3] 目录 1 歷史 2
Read more