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社會黨國際的標誌

社會民主主義（Social democracy）是一種支持通過在自由民主體制和資本主義經濟體系下，通過經濟干預和社會干預的手段促進社會正義的意識形態。社會民主主義支持代議制和參與民主。社會民主主義主張進行收入再分配（英语：Redistribution of income and wealth），通過調控手段使經濟發展符合大眾共同利益（英语：Common good）。建設福利國家亦是社會民主主義的目標之一^[1]^[2]^[3]。社會民主主義希望使資本主義社會能更加民主、公正、團結。20世紀後半段，西歐和北歐國家，尤其是實行北歐模式的北歐國家，都深受社會民主主義的影響^[4]^[5]。

社會民主主義起源於一種在已有政治框架下，通過和平方式對資本主義進行改良，實現從資本主義到社會主義過渡（而不是如革命社會主義那樣通過革命實現）的意識形態^[6]。二戰結束後，西歐的社會民主主義黨派均表示不接受當時蘇聯斯大林主義的政治經濟體制。一些黨派稱目標是採用與蘇聯不同的方法過渡到社會主義，而一些黨派則表示他們的目標是建立資本主義和社會主義的混合體系^[7]。在這一時期，社會民主主義黨派執政時通常會採用混合經濟體制，在經濟主體爲私有制的前提下，將部分產業置於國家的控制下。這種經濟體制與凱恩斯主義的主張有些類似。同時，社會民主主義政黨提出國家干預和建設福利國家的主張。這樣的經濟體制已和社會主義經濟體制有本質上的不同。這些社會民主主義政黨已拋棄早期社會民主主義轉變資本主義體制（比如要素市場、私有制，以及僱傭勞動）的目標^[4]^[8]^[9]^[10]。

今日，社會民主主義主要的議題包括消除社會不平等、貧困，以及特權階級對他人的壓迫^[11]。同時，社會民主主義者還主張建立面向全民的公共服務體系，比如老人福祉（英语：Elderly care）、兒童保育、義務教育、全民健保、勞動保險（英语：workers' compensation）等體系^[12]。社會民主主義亦與工人運動和工會有緊密聯繫。社會民主主義者支持工人的談判權，希望能將政治上的民主決策權延伸到經濟中，促進僱工及其他經濟利益相關者的共同決策^[13]。

「第三条道路」吸收了社會民主主義中關於社會福利的部分主張，並將之與右派經濟體系融合^[14]。

社會民主主義的政黨

許多民主國家都有社會民主主義的政黨，例如：英國工黨、愛爾蘭工黨、荷蘭工黨、法國社會黨、德國社會民主黨，意大利民主黨、加拿大新民主黨、澳大利亚工党、臺灣社會民主黨、紐西蘭工黨、瑞典社會民主工黨、芬蘭社會民主黨、丹麥社會民主黨和挪威工党等。这些政黨一直以來以民主的方式不间斷的參與選舉，致力於打造更相对公平、正义、平等的社会及推行福利國政策。大多數歐洲的社會民主主義政黨都是歐洲社會黨的成員。

20世紀後期，大多数社會民主主義者不再認為資本主義式的市場經濟與他們的目標有衝突，是由社會民主主義嚴格來說並不算是社會主義的一種形式^[15]。又社会党国际的法兰克福宣言里明确言明其为社会主义^[16]，它的宣言守则也言明这点^[17]，大多數社會民主主義者接受了中立派的第三條道路，支持解除政府對經濟的管制，並且強調機會均等作為社會正義的基準點。現代社會民主主義者也包含女性主義的觀點、反對種族歧視和歧視LGBT族群、支持多元文化政策。現代社會民主主義能否被稱為社會主義仍然有極大爭論，但許多社會民主主義者已經不再自認是社會主義者了。

大多數社會民主主義政黨也是社會黨國際的成員，即第二國際的繼承者。

「民主社會主義」與「社會民主主義」

民主社会主义与社會民主主義存在一些差别。民主社會主義者主張建立一個實行社會主義經濟的社會；社会民主主义則是将资本主义和社会主义进行了综合。許多自稱為「社會民主主義」的政黨都與那些民主社會主義政黨劃清了界線，自然的兩者仍有一些重疊的特色，一些民主社會主義者所公開承認與社會民主主義仍然相同的部分，和那些為了使他們更符合社會主義而產生的差異。

在大多數的情況下，社會民主主義的立場是處在資本主義與社會主義的中間，而民主社會主義則擁護完全的社會主義，並且希望藉著民主手段廢止資本主義^[18]。

一般而言，對於民主社會主義與社會民主主義的差異有兩種看法。第一種看法認為民主社會主義僅僅是更左翼的社會民主主義，而不是另一種分支，因為許多社會民主主義者仍然承認他們繼承馬克思主義^[19]，而且社會民主主義者討論政治時的用詞也和正統的馬克思主義者沒有差異。第二種看法則認為即使民主社會主義與社會民主主義都有同樣的主張（將資本主義人性化），但對於民主社會主義而言只是一個在邁向全然的社會主義社會之前的過程而已，至於社會民主主義則已經拋棄建立全然社會主義的社會，同時偏向了中立派的立場，他們已經沒有理由自稱為社會主義了。

歷史

許多政黨在19世紀的下半葉開始自稱為社會民主主義，例如英國的社會民主聯盟，和俄國的俄國社會民主工黨。這些很多都是革命路線的社會主義或馬克思主義團體，他們不只希望推行社會主義，也希望在不民主的國家裡推行民主。

現代的社會民主主義在20世紀初產生了分裂，對於卡尔·马克思的學說有兩種不同的看法。當時許多有關的運動，包括和平主义、無政府主義和工團主義都在同時期誕生（通常是從社會主義裡衍生出來的，不過也有獨立產生的學說），而当时第二国际内的无政府主义者和拉萨尔主义者等對馬克思主義不抱好感。社會民主主義則由於大多數支持者也為社會主義者，而沒有排斥馬克思主義（而且還主張擁護之），不過他們還是經由幾種手段對馬克思主義予以“改良”，並且緩和他們對於資本主義的批評，他們主張社會主義應該經由“改革”而非“革命”來達成。但這些觀點被主張革命路線的社會主義者強烈反對，並主張任何試圖改革資本主義的舉動都注定會失敗，因為改革者將會逐漸腐化，最後自己也變成了資本主義。

愛德華·伯恩施坦，德國社會民主主義理論家和政治家（1895）(革命派共產主義者稱他為修正主義者

儘管理論上的差異，改革路線和革命路線的社會主義者仍然維持統一直到第一次世界大戰爆發，戰爭成了他們徹底決裂的導火線。改革路線的社會主義者各自支持他們自己的國家進行戰爭，而革命路線的社會主義者則認為這是對勞動階級的徹底背叛（因為通常被派去前線送死的士兵都來自社會底層，這樣一來他們就背叛了「全世界的勞工應該聯合起來推翻資本主義」的原則）。社會主義政黨裡都爆發了激烈爭論，例如在德国社会民主党裡改革路線的爱德华·伯恩施坦與革命路線的罗莎·卢森堡之間發生的爭論。在1917年俄國革命後，世界上大多數的社會主義政黨都分裂了。改革路線的社會主義者保持「社會民主主義」的稱呼，而革命路線的社會主義者則開始自稱為「共產主義」，並且很快開始了現代的「共產主義」運動。（參見第三国际）自從1920年代開始，社會民主主義與共產主義間在學說上的差異便不斷擴大。

在社會民主主義與共產主義分裂之後，社會民主主義內部又發生了一次分裂。一些人仍然認為必須廢止資本主義（不透過革命手段，而透過民主議會的手段），而其他人則認為資本主義可以被保留，只需要做出一些調整和改進，例如將主要產業國有化、達成一些社會政策（例如公共教育、普遍的全民保健系統等等）以及（部分）經由福利國家政策和累進稅率重新分配財富。到了後來，絕大多數的社會民主主義政黨都採取了後者的立場，並且在二戰後，都拋棄了要廢止資本主義的理念。例如在1959年，德国社会民主党便採納了哥德斯堡纲领，拋棄了階級鬥爭和部分马克思主义的概念。

二戰後，紅玫瑰常被作為社會民主主義政黨的象徵。

自從1980年代後期以來，冷戰結束後，大多數的中間偏左社會民主主義政黨都採納了第三種道路。現代的社會民主主義政黨通常主張混合經濟，以資本主義為主體，但由政府提供一些社會保障服務。許多社會民主主義政黨不再強調他們長久以來主張通過經濟干預而實現社會正義，改而關心人權和環保議題。也因為如此，他們面對世界各地更進步的綠黨越來越大的挑戰，綠黨視環保和社會平等為和平的基礎，並且強調改革貨幣供應量和安全貿易以確保生態的健全。

在瑞典，綠黨、社會民主黨組成了紅綠聯盟，而中間偏右的自由保守主義政黨溫和黨則與中間派的自由主義政黨自由黨和中間黨結盟。法國、德國、芬蘭、丹麥、冰島、挪威也出現了類似的現象。

一些社會民主主義所推廣的政策在當地國家長久的實施，並在一定意義上也被其他主流的政黨所支持，這樣的政策包括了累進稅和由政府所出資的保健系統，或推行免費的大學教育等等。其他的政策有時候則會被否決，有時甚至是由社會民主主義政黨執政的政府所推翻的。同時社會民主主義政黨也拋棄了國有化的概念，反而部份的、甚至是徹底的民營化各種產業。這些改變可以從澳大利亞的鲍勃·霍克和保羅·基廷政府（1983－1996）、英國的托尼·布莱尔和戈登·布朗政府（1997－2010）、德國的格哈特·施罗德政府（1998－2005）、瑞典的戈兰·佩尔松政府（1996－2006）等人看出。

一般而言，這些政策的逆轉往往是由政黨的領導者所支持的，但基層的黨員和支持者大多都不支持這些政策。許多人甚至宣稱社會民主主義政黨的領導階層已經腐化了，因為他們在實際上已經拋棄了社會民主主義的理念。而這些被指稱腐化的社會主義者則反擊，他們的新政策只是為了使社會民主主義更適用於現代的世界。

當討論起社會民主主義近年來的改變時，或許必須記得一件事，通常被人們稱為'傳統的'社會民主主義現在則被認為只有在適當的國際氣候下-也就是在戰後所舉行的布列敦森林協定所規定的固定匯率制度下才有可能實現，而當這個制度瓦解之後，便不可能再重建之了。因為美國政府未遵守承諾，發行大量美元讓美元長期逐漸貶值，使經濟生產力的提升被抵銷，人們得賺更多錢才能應付日常開銷。

一些社會民主主義政黨是自由貿易的支持者，因為認知到限制國際間的貿易可能造成價格的提升和收入的減少，而傷害了貧窮人口，反而右傾的自由主義和保守主義政黨則反對自由貿易及支持保護主義的商業管制。例如英國工黨在1924年的首次執政，便是因為他們的對手英國保守黨主張貿易保護主義而在1923年的選舉中失利。

現代社會民主主義政黨的普遍主張

通常，現代的社會民主主義者支持：

經由一套管理體制管理民營企業以確保勞工、消費者和中小企業的利益。

社會市場經濟超越自由市场，或者，在某些情況和範圍下，進行計畫經濟。

擁護公平貿易超越自由貿易。

廣泛的社會福利體制（雖然大多沒有民主社会主义和其他社會主義團體所主張的廣泛程度），尤其要緩和貧窮人口，並且為人民投保以避免人民受疾病或失業的影響而失去收入。

由政府持有或者由政府補助，為國民提供教育、醫療系統、孩童照顧等等的服務。

從中等至偏高比率的稅率，以支援政府的支出，並實施累進稅制度。

一套規範產業的制度（法定的最低工資，確保工作環境，保護勞工免受資方隨意的解雇，支持集體談判權）。

環境保護的法規（但沒有綠黨主張的那樣廣泛，反對對企業實施過多管制）。

支持移民和多元文化政策。

現世主義和開放社會政策，雖然在這方面程度不盡相同，但皆支持LGBT權利、性別平等和女性自主生育權，部分容許供消遣用的藥物如大麻等，但或會因為政治上的考量而反對。

支持具國際主義色彩的外交政策，以保護及推廣人權，並支持有效的多邊主義及國際合作。

對社會民主主義的批評

大多數對社會民主主義的批評來自偏右翼的自由主義者。偏右的自由主義者通常主張社會民主主義的自由主義限制個人權利，尤其是在經濟上的自由，個人選擇的自由往往被巨大的制度所蓋過，也就是那些國營的學校、醫療系統、孩童照顧和其他服務。尤其是社會民主主義的政策只會讓社會趨於平庸，而資本主義國家則鼓勵人們競爭邁向成功。社會民主主義者則通常反駁，藉著提高絕大多數人的生活水平並且消除極端貧窮的威脅，個人的權利反而得以提升。另一種從左翼裡發出的反駁更宣稱藉著限制一些經濟的權利，對小型企業而言能讓市場更為公平和自由，也因此能提升更多人的自由和財富，也因此沒有人會變的太有錢。而許多經濟上的權利也能消除白領階層犯罪。這些是一部分社會民主主義者的反駁。

經濟保守主義和古典自由主义者則主張社會民主主義的政策妨害了市場機制，鼓勵大量的預算赤字和限制企業自由將會傷害經濟的發展。對此社會民主主義者則會反駁近年來右翼的保守派政府同樣製造了大量的預算赤字，尤其是美國在雷根和布希的任期時、以及英國在柴契爾的任期時的預算赤字。古典自由主義者並且批評道，社會民主主義對於資本主義的批評往往是針對由國家所控制的社團主義體制，那其實是偏向法西斯主義而不是真正的自由市场經濟。

现代自由主义者則批評社會民主主義為了其理想的目標，而限制了個人在政治和法律上的權利。舉例而言，英國於2004年5月發生的未經審判便關押恐怖份子嫌疑犯的事件中，主張人應有權利接受公平審判的英國自由民主黨大力批評執政的工黨政府，而工黨政府則辯護他們是為了社會安全才壓縮了人權。不過這個例子是假設英國工黨仍然奉行著社會民主主義，但實際上，工黨及自民黨早已脫離了社會民主主義的疇範。而且類似的反恐怖份子法條也曾於2006年在澳大利亞由澳大利亞自由黨所推行。

社會民主主義也受到大量來自左派的批評，民主社會主義和革命路線的社會主義者批評社會民主主義太過依賴資本主義系統，使得他們變的與现代自由主义沒有兩樣。許多社會民主主義者明確的放棄了「社會主義」的稱呼以及建立社會主義社會的目標，並且願意與資本主義體制合作而不是去推翻之。因此許多左翼人士批評現代的中間偏左社會民主主義政黨背叛了他們的原則，逐漸腐化並和生意人的遊說團及其他利益集團同流合污。左派人士指出許多社會民主主義的代表性人物，例如英國的托尼·布莱尔及戈登·布朗政府（1997－2010）、瑞典的戈兰·佩尔松（1996－2006）和德國的格哈特·施罗德（1998－2005），他們雖稱走第三條道路的路線，惟政策皆加入新自由主義的元素，例如向大企業施行減稅、減少社會福利、進行私有化、減少產業上的規定，並導致福利國家政策大幅倒退。

著名的社會民主主義者列表

愛德華·伯恩斯坦

卡尔·考茨基

理查德·道金斯

托尼·布莱尔

佩爾·阿爾賓·漢森

杰克·林顿

戈登·布朗

鲍勃·霍克

格哈特·施罗德

延斯·斯托尔滕贝格

參考文獻

^ Heywood 2012, p. 128: "Social democracy is an ideological stance that supports a broad balance between market capitalism, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other hand. Being based on a compromise between the market and the state, social democracy lacks a systematic underlying theory and is, arguably, inherently vague. It is nevertheless associated with the following views: (1) capitalism is the only reliable means of generating wealth, but it is a morally defective means of distributing wealth because of its tendency towards poverty and inequality; (2) the defects of the capitalist system can be rectified through economic and social intervention, the state being the custodian of the public interest […]"

^ Miller 1998，第827页: "The idea of social democracy is now used to describe a society the economy of which is predominantly capitalist, but where the state acts to regulate the economy in the general interest, provides welfare services outside of it and attempts to alter the distribution of income and wealth in the name of social justice."

^ Badie，Berg-Schlosser & Morlino 2011, p. 2423: "Social democracy refers to a political tendency resting on three fundamental features: (1) democracy (e.g., equal rights to vote and form parties), (2) an economy partly regulated by the state (e.g., through Keynesianism), and (3) a welfare state offering social support to those in need (e.g., equal rights to education, health service, employment and pensions)."

^ ^4.0^4.1 Weisskopf 1992, p. 10: "Thus social democrats do not try to do away with either the market or private property ownership; instead, they attempt to create conditions in which the operation of a capitalist market economy will lead to more egalitarian outcomes and encourage more democratic and more solidaristic practices than would a more conventional capitalist system."

^
Gombert et al. 2009， p. 8; Sejersted 2011.

^ Social democracy. Encyclopædia Britannica. [10 August 2015].

^ Adams 1993, pp. 102-103: "The emergence of social democracy was partly a result of the Cold War. People argued that if the Stalinist Soviet empire, where the state controlled everything, showed socialism in action, then socialism was not worth having. [...] The consensus policies of a mixed and managed economy and the welfare state, developed by the post-war Labour government, seemed in themselves to provide a basis for a viable socialism that would combine prosperity and freedom with social justice and the possibility of a full life for everyone. They could be seen as a compromise between socialism and capitalism."

^ Miller 1998，第827页: "In the second, mainly post-war, phase, social democrats came to believe that their ideals and values could be achieved by reforming capitalism rather than abolishing it. They favored a mixed economy in which most industries would be privately owned, with only a small number of utilities and other essential services in public ownership."

^ Jones 2001, p. 1410: "In addition, particularly since World War II, distinctions have sometimes been made between social democrats and socialists on the basis that the former have accepted the permanence of the mixed economy and have abandoned the idea of replacing the capitalist system with a qualitatively different socialist society."

^ Heywood 2012, pp. 125–128: "As an ideological stance, social democracy took shape around the mid-twentieth century, resulting from the tendency among western socialist parties not only to adopt parliamentary strategies, but also to revise their socialist goals. In particular, they abandoned the goal of abolishing capitalism and sought instead to reform or ‘humanize’ it. Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other."

^ Hoefer 2013, p. 29.

^ Meyer & Hinchman 2007, p. 137.

^
Meyer & Hinchman 2007， p. 91; Upchurch， Taylor & Mathers 2009， p. 51.

^ Romano 2006, p. 11.

^ 现代资本主义和欧洲社会民主主义-中国社会科学在线

^ 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言："3. Socialism aims to liberate the peoples from dependence on a minority which owns or controls the means of production. It aims to put economic power in the hands of the people as a whole, and to create a community in which free men work together as equals."

^ 社会党国际-原则宣言："1. The idea of Socialism has caught the imagination of people across the world, promoted successful political movements, decisively improved the lives of working men and women, and contributed to shaping the 20th century."

^ Democratic Socialism Works & People Are Happy About It!, page 1

^ 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言："11.Socialism is an international movement which does not demand a rigid uniformity of approach. Whether Socialists build their faith on Marxist or other methods of analysing society, whether they are inspired by religious or humanitarian principles, they all strive for the same goal—a system of social justice, better living, freedom and world peace."

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扩展閱讀

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Lavelle, Ashley. The Death of Social Democracy: Political Consequences in the 21st Century. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. 2008. ISBN 978-0-7546-7014-8.

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外部連結

社會黨國際（英文）

Socialdemocrat.org.

Papers on the Future of Social Democracy in Canada

《社会民主主义导论》 -（德）托马斯·迈尔（简体中文）^{[永久失效連結]}

[FOOTNOTEHeywood2012128-1] Heywood 2012, p. 128: "Social democracy is an ideological stance that supports a broad balance between market capitalism, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other hand. Being based on a compromise between the market and the state, social democracy lacks a systematic underlying theory and is, arguably, inherently vague. It is nevertheless associated with the following views: (1) capitalism is the only reliable means of generating wealth, but it is a morally defective means of distributing wealth because of its tendency towards poverty and inequality; (2) the defects of the capitalist system can be rectified through economic and social intervention, the state being the custodian of the public interest […]"

[2] Miller 1998，第827页: "The idea of social democracy is now used to describe a society the economy of which is predominantly capitalist, but where the state acts to regulate the economy in the general interest, provides welfare services outside of it and attempts to alter the distribution of income and wealth in the name of social justice."

[FOOTNOTEBadieBerg-SchlosserMorlino20112423-3] Badie，Berg-Schlosser & Morlino 2011, p. 2423: "Social democracy refers to a political tendency resting on three fundamental features: (1) democracy (e.g., equal rights to vote and form parties), (2) an economy partly regulated by the state (e.g., through Keynesianism), and (3) a welfare state offering social support to those in need (e.g., equal rights to education, health service, employment and pensions)."

[FOOTNOTEWeisskopf199210-4] 4.0^4.1 Weisskopf 1992, p. 10: "Thus social democrats do not try to do away with either the market or private property ownership; instead, they attempt to create conditions in which the operation of a capitalist market economy will lead to more egalitarian outcomes and encourage more democratic and more solidaristic practices than would a more conventional capitalist system."

[FOOTNOTEGombertBläsiusKrellTimpe20098Sejersted2011-5] 
Gombert et al. 2009， p. 8; Sejersted 2011.

[6] Social democracy. Encyclopædia Britannica. [10 August 2015].

[FOOTNOTEAdams1993102-103-7] Adams 1993, pp. 102-103: "The emergence of social democracy was partly a result of the Cold War. People argued that if the Stalinist Soviet empire, where the state controlled everything, showed socialism in action, then socialism was not worth having. [...] The consensus policies of a mixed and managed economy and the welfare state, developed by the post-war Labour government, seemed in themselves to provide a basis for a viable socialism that would combine prosperity and freedom with social justice and the possibility of a full life for everyone. They could be seen as a compromise between socialism and capitalism."

[8] Miller 1998，第827页: "In the second, mainly post-war, phase, social democrats came to believe that their ideals and values could be achieved by reforming capitalism rather than abolishing it. They favored a mixed economy in which most industries would be privately owned, with only a small number of utilities and other essential services in public ownership."

[FOOTNOTEJones20011410-9] Jones 2001, p. 1410: "In addition, particularly since World War II, distinctions have sometimes been made between social democrats and socialists on the basis that the former have accepted the permanence of the mixed economy and have abandoned the idea of replacing the capitalist system with a qualitatively different socialist society."

[FOOTNOTEHeywood2012125–128-10] Heywood 2012, pp. 125–128: "As an ideological stance, social democracy took shape around the mid-twentieth century, resulting from the tendency among western socialist parties not only to adopt parliamentary strategies, but also to revise their socialist goals. In particular, they abandoned the goal of abolishing capitalism and sought instead to reform or ‘humanize’ it. Social democracy therefore came to stand for a broad balance between the market economy, on the one hand, and state intervention, on the other."

[FOOTNOTEHoefer201329-11] Hoefer 2013, p. 29.

[FOOTNOTEMeyerHinchman2007137-12] Meyer & Hinchman 2007, p. 137.

[FOOTNOTEMeyerHinchman200791UpchurchTaylorMathers200951-13] 
Meyer & Hinchman 2007， p. 91; Upchurch， Taylor & Mathers 2009， p. 51.

[FOOTNOTERomano200611-14] Romano 2006, p. 11.

[15] 现代资本主义和欧洲社会民主主义-中国社会科学在线

[16] 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言："3. Socialism aims to liberate the peoples from dependence on a minority which owns or controls the means of production. It aims to put economic power in the hands of the people as a whole, and to create a community in which free men work together as equals."

[17] 社会党国际-原则宣言："1. The idea of Socialism has caught the imagination of people across the world, promoted successful political movements, decisively improved the lives of working men and women, and contributed to shaping the 20th century."

[18] Democratic Socialism Works & People Are Happy About It!, page 1

[19] 社会党国际-法兰克福宣言："11.Socialism is an international movement which does not demand a rigid uniformity of approach. Whether Socialists build their faith on Marxist or other methods of analysing society, whether they are inspired by religious or humanitarian principles, they all strive for the same goal—a system of social justice, better living, freedom and world peace."

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